Cardiac tissue engineering strategies: Past, present, and future

Cardiovascular diseases remain one of the most challenging health issues of our time. However, with the advancement of various innovative approaches, such as cardiac tissue engineering (CTE), it has become increasingly possible to address this issue. CTE focuses on the development of either a whole organ or a smaller replica known as a cardiac patch, which is implanted into the patient's body to promote tissue regeneration. Over the years, the field has embraced a wide range of methodologies, incorporating various cellular and chemical compositions to improve outcomes, and research continues to evolve. The primary aim of CTE is to understand and effectively harness the complex interactions between materials and cells, ensuring their successful integration within the body. This review highlights the progress made over the past two decades in developing cardiac patches, examining the biomaterials and cell technologies used, their functionality, and the challenges that still need to be addressed.