Ultramarine Blue in Persian Sources: Historical Methods of Lapis Lazuli Processing and Imitation Pigments

Natural ultramarine (Persian: lājvard) is a fundamental colour in historical Persian painting and illumination. This study breaks new ground by bringing Persian primary sources to pigment research, offering valuable insights into the historical methods used to prepare natural ultramarine. By examining 29 Persian and Islamic treatises spanning seven centuries (11th to 18th) across four categories of mineralogy books, scientific encyclopaedias, medicinal dictionaries, and book arts treatises, this research uncovers the evolution of pigment extraction techniques in the Persian-Islamic world. The analysis reveals a progression from basic extraction methods in earlier sources to increasingly sophisticated processes in later centuries. While some similarities with European techniques are noted, the study highlights the originality of Persian/Islamic artisans’ methods, evidenced by unique material choices and extraction techniques. This research has significant implications for conservation efforts. By identifying diverse blue pigments used in Persian art, including natural ultramarine, azurite, and various imitation pigments (both copper-based and cobalt-based), the study provides conservators with crucial information for accurately identifying and preserving historical artworks. Moreover, this investigation contributes to the broader field of pigment studies by demonstrating the value of non-Western primary sources in understanding global artistic traditions, tracing the development and transmission of pigment extraction methods across cultures, and expanding our knowledge of the range and composition of blue pigments used in historical Persian art.