From expropriation to transfer of development rights: legal-operational analysis of the Turkish Model

Zoning plan implementations in Türkiye often restrict property rights for public services, while expropriation remains costly and contentious. In 2024, Türkiye recognised Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) under Zoning Law No. 3194 as an alternative mechanism. Unlike market-based models, the Turkish approach requires full ownership transfer to the public, often without direct monetary compensation. This study analyses the legal and operational structure of the model through two implementation scenarios. The findings show that TDR can reduce fiscal pressure and limit uncompensated takings disputes, but also raises concerns regarding density management, voluntariness, and valuation credibility.