The big bull: stone sculptures, ceremonial places and monumentality in Late Iron Age central Iberia

This paper examines the zoomorphic Iron Age sculptures commonly known as verracos, stone effigies of bulls, pigs and boars scattered across western and central Iberia. More than 450 examples are known, many very bulky, measuring over 2 m long and weighing between 3 and 8 tonnes. These sculptures were often placed in areas close to the oppida. The best pastures in the valleys and nearby water sources were marked in the landscape by erecting these sculptures. Moreover, these places have very high visibility over their surroundings, suggesting that locations in the landscape were deliberately chosen for their easy identifiability. The carving processes involved in producing these stone sculptures provide insights into the status of stonemasons and the wealth of livestock-raising communities. The discussion highlights the need for a wider sense of ‘monumentality’ when studying the Iron Age, since the verracos were an essential part of the landscape, serving as a means of organizing the land in densely populated regions.