When tanks tank and bombs bomb: Understanding failure in military innovation

Military innovation is prized by political leaders and military officers alike, but the demand for it can mask significant pitfalls any innovation process must navigate. This article explores failure through three lenses. Conceptually, failure is difficult to define but we navigate these challenges by identifying three modes of failure. Methodologically, we explain why adjudicating failure and success is so difficult. Theoretically, the article examines how factors that increase the likelihood of innovation can also hamper its success. A better understanding of failure will help to assess or adapt existing theories at the heart of military innovation studies.