Physical and virtual space: a critical review of accessibility concepts and measurements

This study revisits the concept of accessibility amid the expanding role of virtual and hybrid spaces. As digital platforms increasingly shape how people engage with jobs, services, and goods, traditional models that emphasise spatial proximity and travel costs no longer reflect how access operates today. Drawing on the four core components of accessibility – transportation, land use, temporal, and individual – this study reviews recent conceptual and empirical work that measures access in digitally mediated settings. It evaluates infrastructure-based, location-based, and person-based approaches, with particular attention to equity concerns. The results point to persistent variation in access, driven by differences in broadband infrastructure, digital literacy, and the spatial coverage of online platforms. The study highlights the need for more detailed and context-aware methods of measuring accessibility and calls for planning tools and future works that incorporate both virtual and physical constraints in urban systems.