War-fleeing Ukrainians’ adaptation and attachment under temporary protection in the European Union: the case of Estonia

Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine triggered a mass exodus to the European Union, where displaced Ukrainians received protection under the Temporary Protection Directive (TPD). Estonia hosted one of the highest proportions of war-fleeing Ukrainians relative to its population. A 2024 survey of 391 displaced Ukrainians in Estonia showed considerable uncertainty about their long-term residence and migration plans. Those with Estonia-oriented adaptation and attachment (16.9%) were more often young adults and parents, employed, satisfied with life, learning Estonian, and less inclined to return compared with Ukraine-oriented individuals (13%). The largest group (70.1%) was oriented to both countries, rather than possessing transnational lifestyles.