Identifying what our students have learned: a framework for practical assessment validation

Universities are responsible for safeguarding the value of qualifications through assessment that generates trustworthy evidence about what students know and can do. Public trust in higher education depends on the credibility of these inferences. Yet, in practice, assessment often rests on inappropriate inferences drawn from misaligned or inadequate evidence. This conceptual article addresses that problem by reframing assessment validity, not as the alignment of outcomes and tasks, but in terms of the challenge of evidencing learning through a series of proxies. We introduce the 4Ps framework (product, process, performance and practice) which identifies four primary types of evidence used in assessment. The framework highlights strengths and limitations of each type of proxy, the risks of over-reliance or misuse, and the consequences for assessment validity. By exposing often-overlooked differences between intended outcomes and assessment evidence, the 4Ps framework offers a practical resource for educators, programme teams and institutions to interrogate existing practices, design more credible and balanced assessment systems, and consider reforms at both unit and programme levels. In doing so, it contributes to the broader project of strengthening the robustness, fairness and public legitimacy of assessment in higher education.