Cumulative effects of mild traumatic brain injury in the general population: persistent post-concussion symptoms and post-traumatic stress

Objective To examine theincremental effects of multiple mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) on persistent post-concussion-like symptoms (PPCS), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and complex PTSD (C-PTSD) in a large community sample.Settingand participants A cross-sectional survey of 1710 individuals from the UK general population, recruited online. Subgroups included individuals with no TBI history (n = 581), a single mTBI (n = 581), and multiple mTBIs (n = 548).Main measures TBI history was assessed using the Ohio State TBI Identification method. PPCS and PTSD/C-PTSD symptoms were measured with the Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire and the International Trauma Questionnaire.Results Individuals with multiple mTBIs reported significantly higher cognitive, somatic, affective, and total PPCS severity (R2 = .04–.06, p < 0.001) compared to those with one or no mTBIs. Single mTBI participants also reported more symptoms than those with no TBI. Multiple mTBIs were associated with greater PTSD/C-PTSD symptom severity and higher C-PTSD prevalence (p < 0.001). Results remained significant after adjusting for covariates.Conclusions Multiple mTBIs are linked to increased PPCS and PTSD/C-PTSD severity in the general population. Early identification and tailored interventions are essential to reduce long-term psychological and neurological effects.