Navigating shadow education for higher education access in conflict-affected Syria: voices of rural secondary students

This study investigates fee-based private tutoring among Grade 12 students in rural Syria, a conflict-affected context where public schooling remains fragile. Guided by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, it examines patterns of participation, motivations and perceived effectiveness of tutoring, as well as their implications for equity in access to higher education. Survey data were collected from 889 students across six secondary schools in rural Aleppo. Findings show that 32.3% of students received tutoring, primarily in large-group formats at tutoring centres, with most attending three or more sessions per week. Students’ motivations were predominantly academic, focusing on examination success and subject understanding, while parental and peer influence was limited. Regression analyses indicate that frequency of attendance was the strongest predictor of perceived effectiveness, alongside tutoring format, family study support and motivational factors. The study highlights the paradoxical role of private tutoring as a survival strategy and a mechanism reinforcing educational inequality in post-conflict Syria.