Effects of Low Battery Warning Sound Types and Driver Extraversion on Range Anxiety in Pure Electric Vehicles

This study investigates how driver extraversion and low-battery alert sounds (alarm vs. naturalistic) affect range anxiety. Eighty drivers were divided into high and low extraversion groups. During simulated driving, participants received alerts at 10% and 5% battery. Data were collected on eye movements, pupil responses, Primary Appraisal Secondary Appraisal (PASA) cognitive appraisals, energy-saving button reaction times, and System Usability Scale (SUS) ratings. Results showed a significant interaction between extraversion and sound type, forming an “extravert–alarm, introvert–naturalistic” matching pattern. Under matching conditions, drivers exhibited fewer visual fixations, smaller pupil changes, lower threat, higher self-efficacy and control expectancies, and higher usability scores. Under mismatched conditions, anxiety drove faster button presses with negative experiences. The effect intensified as battery levels decreased. Findings support adaptive sound systems tailored to driver extraversion.