Understanding the role of cultural learning in the emergence of first impressions from facial appearance

Humans spontaneously form character judgements about strangers from their facial appearance. While these “first impressions” typically have little or no factual basis, they exert a significant influence over behaviour. Whereas some authors argue that first impressions have an innate origin, we propose that first impressions arise from learned associations between representations of facial appearance and representations of the trait profiles that others may possess. Cultural messages, including those conveyed by propaganda, illustration, art, film, and television, as well as interactions with caregivers and peers, teach children a range of face-trait mappings. We review the emerging evidence base, much of which supports our framework. However, we argue that previous research may have inadvertently “stacked the deck” in favour of evolutionary accounts by systematically confounding facial appearance cues and facial behaviour cues. To advance the origins debate, researchers must more clearly distinguish between the influence of behaviour and appearance.