Using covariance-based structural equation modeling to investigate teachers’ TPACK interactive learning factors: A mediating variable of empowering learners with human–computer interaction

The key to teachers’ TPACK teaching is to use technology and combine teaching strategies to promote students’ understanding of subject knowledge. This study aims to explore the relationships between teachers’ perceived ICT teaching self-efficacy (ICT-TSE), empowering learners with human–computer interaction (EL-HCI), and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) that strengthens student learning, assesses measurement quality, and examines predictive relationships among factors through Covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (CB-SEM). The participants selected 673 secondary school teachers and used a questionnaire with fifty items. The results show that ICT-TSE has a significant direct effect on TPACK and an indirect effect on teachers’ innovative teaching behavior in ICT-integrated technology applications through EL-HCI. Teachers using EL-HCI can achieve mutual benefits in teaching and learning, improving students’ learning environments. We discuss the factors influencing TPACK education and provide recommendations for its development, and teachers can use human–computer interaction to improve teaching outcomes.