Digital learning in early childhood: a comparative study of cooperative and self-directed models using augmented reality smart toys

The integration of digital–physical educational toys offers new opportunities to support young children’s exploratory learning through hands-on STEM-related play. This study examined how cooperative and self-directed learning arrangements were associated with preschoolers’ engagement and task performance when using the PLUGO interactive kit. Participants were 100 children aged 4–6 years from four preschools in northern Taiwan, who completed the Wash the Cow task either cooperatively (in pairs) or individually. Data were collected through behavioral observations and a developmentally adapted simplified flow questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive and comparative statistics. Results indicated that cooperative learning was associated with higher observed operational engagement and greater material use. Children in cooperative settings demonstrated significantly higher operational behavior scores and used more magnetic blocks than those in self-directed settings, suggesting more active coordination and exploration during the digital–physical STEM task. No significant differences were found between learning arrangements in task completion time or overall flow experience. Descriptive patterns further suggested that children with prior PLUGO experience engaged more fluently, while self-directed learners reported slightly higher immersion. Overall, the findings underscore the importance of aligning instructional arrangements with children’s operational readiness in early childhood digital–physical STEM learning.