Unraveling carbon dot–deoxyribonucleic acid interactions: binding modes, conjugation strategies and applications in Förster resonance energy transfer

Carbon dots (CDs), a class of carbon-based nanoparticles, have garnered attention for their tunable optical properties, biocompatibility, sustainable synthesis and facile functionalization. Interactions between CDs and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—driven by electrostatic attraction, groove binding, hydrogen bonding and π–π stacking—form the basis for advanced biosensing platforms, particularly via Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), where CDs act as donors to fluorophore-labeled DNA acceptors. This review provides a unique focus on design principles and performance improvement strategies for CD–DNA interactions in FRET sensing, covering physicochemical tuning (e.g. surface groups, doping) for optimized energy transfer. Applications include sensitive nucleic acid detection, DNA damage differentiation, hybridization monitoring and binding affinity assays, with insights into challenges and future sensor advancements.