Analysis of bisphenol a and bisphenol S in capsule coffee and integrated exposure assessment of the Korean general population by life cycle

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its alternative, bisphenol S (BPS), are widely used in plastic-based products. This study investigated capsule coffee as a potential source of bisphenol exposure. BPA and BPS concentrations in eight capsule coffee products were quantified using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. BPA and BPS were detected at 0.86–4.76 ng/mL and 0.1–0.47 ng/mL, respectively. A life cycle–based scenario exposure assessment was conducted to estimate population-level BPA exposure in the Korean general population by integrating measured capsule coffee concentrations with literature-reported levels in food, breast milk, and environmental media, together with Korean exposure factors. Average total BPA exposure was estimated at 116 ng/kg/day, with ingestion contributing more than 80% across all life stages. Canned food consumption accounted for 53% of total exposure, particularly canned fish and meat across all age groups, and canned fruit among preschool children. Breast milk, indoor dust, and canned beverages were notable contributors in specific age groups. Even under high-exposure scenarios, total BPA exposure remained below the tolerable daily intake of 20 μg/kg bw/day.