Effects of individual- and school-level factors on Cambodian teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion: a two-level hierarchical linear model

In Cambodia, students with disabilities face significant barriers to accessing and completing general education and achieving full inclusion in regular schools, highlighting critical concerns about teachers’ attitudes and perceived barriers to inclusion. This study examined teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion and assessed the individual- and school-level factors that significantly shaped these attitudes. It involved 1008 regular primary school teachers from 236 schools across Cambodia. The Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusion Scale (TATIS) was utilised as the research instrument. The data analysis included descriptive statistics, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), reliability tests, and a two-level Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM). The EFA results confirmed the five-factor structure of the Cambodian TATIS. Findings revealed that teachers generally held moderate attitudes towards inclusion, despite reporting the least positive attitudes regarding their professional training. Their attitudes were significantly predicted by their educational levels, experience with inclusive education training, and confidence in teaching students with disabilities. Teachers in schools with inclusive education programmes and those in rural areas reported more positive attitudes than their counterparts. The study discusses practical implications for improving teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion.