Tutoring practices and learning experiences in shadow education: a systematic review

This systematic review synthesizes empirical research (2010–2023) on tutoring practices and students’ learning experiences within shadow education, reflecting sustained global interest in this expanding sector. Following the PRISMA framework, the review searched Sage Journals, Taylor & Francis Online, JSTOR, and Scopus, yielding 37 eligible empirical studies. Thematic analysis reveals a pedagogical hybridization in which conventional teacher-centered methods and more contemporary learner-centered approaches converge within shadow education. Tutoring practices identified include organizational forms, exam-focused teaching, personalized tutoring, and technology use, while learning experiences center on individual attention, conducive learning environments, and affective relationships with tutors. The review also identifies research gaps, including a marked geographic concentration in East Asia and South Asia and limited quantitative evidence, and outlines opportunities for future work, particularly on AI-enhanced tutoring platforms. These findings offer evidence-based insights for educational stakeholders and a framework for understanding the evolving pedagogical landscape of the shadow education industry.