Dynamics and perspectives of norms compliance in the Germany–Albania readmission process

Origin countries of rejected asylum seekers often hesitate to formally cooperate with the European Union (EU) and its member states (MS) on readmission. Western Balkan countries, particularly Albania, demonstrate a collaborative approach, as evidenced by the conclusion of readmission agreements, high return rates and support for MS’s migration management tools. Based on interviews with 129 returned migrants and 30 stakeholders from Albania and Germany, along with extensive desk research, this study examines norm dynamics in Albania’s readmission collaboration with the EU and its MS, particularly Germany. By critically engaging with the concept of norm internalisation, the article presents three key arguments. First, Albania shows strong behavioural compliance with the duty-to-readmit norm, which allows to leave the underlying drivers of migration unaddressed. Second, the drivers of Albania’s compliance with the readmission norm have shifted from ideational and identity-based to interest-driven, reflecting the interest-based and selective stance of the EU as norm setting actor. Third, readmitted Albanians tend to accept removal orders as an expression of rule-of-law, while bearing the highest cost of readmission collaboration. By elucidating the perspectives of various stakeholders involved in the readmission process, this article contributes to the discussion about the drivers of compliance with the duty-to-readmit norm.