Gendered income effects of climate-smart technology adoption among smallholder vanilla farmers in Tanzania: the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition regression model

Climate change continues to threaten agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods, especially among smallholder farmers in Tanzania. Climate-Smart Agriculture, including climate-smart vanilla technologies, has been introduced to boost agricultural productivity, ensure sustainable food security, and create resilient income opportunities for farming communities. However, limited evidence exists on how gender differences in the adoption of these technologies shape income outcomes. This study examines the gendered effects of adopting climate-smart vanilla technologies on the income of smallholder vanilla farmers in Morogoro, Tanzania, using the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition approach. The study uses cross-sectional data from 270 smallholder vanilla farmers selected through multistage sampling. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Blinder – Oaxaca decomposition model. The results show that most farmers adopted at least one climate-smart vanilla technology, with organic mulching being the most widely adopted, followed by intercropping and irrigation. Male farmers exhibit higher adoption rates and earn significantly higher vanilla incomes than female farmers. Decomposition results indicate that approximately 74% of the observed gender income gap is explained by differences in endowments such as access to land, credit, and services, while the remaining gap reflects structural and behavioural factors. The study highlights the need for targeted training interventions on climate-smart vanilla technologies to enhance adoption and improve vanilla incomes among smallholder farmers, particularly in rural areas such as Morogoro Rural District.