Beyond co-creation: how non-profit organizations create public value in complex social challenges

This article explores how public value is created in the complex and contested field of refugee integration, identifing three key arenas – service delivery, social and community activities, and advocacy – whereby NPOs create value in the multiple domains of refugee integration. We develop a conceptual model illustrating mechanisms of public value creation from the perspective of NPOs (full co-creation, societal creation of value between volunteers and service users only, and contestation), highlighting the roles of local and refugee volunteers. We contribute to public management scholarship by advancing theoretical understanding of how value is created in politicized policy fields and by whom.