Catalan writing by Chinese multilingual adults in Catalonia: an error analysis

This study investigates the written production of Catalan as a third language (L3) by Chinese multilingual adults in Catalonia, who possess prior proficiency in Mandarin (L1) and English and Spanish (L2s). Through an error analysis of 26 writing samples across six proficiency levels (A1 – C2), we identified 392 errors categorised into grammatical, lexical, syntactic, and substance-related types. The findings reveal that grammatical and substance errors were most frequent while lexical and syntactic errors were less common. Interlingual influences, especially from Spanish, were dominant at beginner levels, gradually giving way to intralingual and developmental errors as proficiency increased. Spanish served as both a scaffold and a source of negative transfer, while English was occasionally used to fill lexical gaps. These results highlight the complex interplay of previously acquired languages in L3 acquisition and underscore the importance of targeted pedagogical strategies that address cross-linguistic interference and developmental challenges. This study contributes to the growing body of research on multilingual language acquisition and offers practical implications for curriculum design and language instruction in multilingual contexts.