Sustainable valorization of jamun seed waste into activated carbon for enhanced performance adsorption: characterization and application in removal of cationic dyes from aqueous solutions

/g). Characterization using FTIR, BET, SEM, and zeta potential (-36.36 mV) confirmed high colloidal stability and the presence of active oxygen-containing functional groups (-OH and -COOH). Batch experiments achieved 98-99% removal with maximum adsorption capacities of approximately 3.233 mg/g for both dyes. Optimal parameters included contact times of 40-50 min, a dosage of 0.9 - 1.2 g, and temperatures of 35-45 °C. The Hill model provided the best fit for MG and the Redlich-Peterson model provided the best fit for CV. The pseudo-first-order model demonstrated the highest correlation coefficient for MG whereas the Elovich model was the best fit for CV, suggesting a chemisorption mechanism on a heterogeneous surface. The thermodynamic parameters show that the adsorption process is spontaneous and endothermic. Scale-up simulations further showed that JSAC can effectively treat large volumes of dye-contaminated water with practical adsorbent mass requirements.