Pollution Level, Occurrence, Distribution, and Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements Using Multivariate Analysis and Its Phytoremediation in Urban Area of Northwest Pakistan

The study aimed to assess possible sources, ecological and health hazards due to the release of potential toxic elements, and their phytoremediation through native flora in urban areas of Pakistan. The mean concentrations (mg kg−1) of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) ranged from 0.51 − 4.9, 0.7 − 6.1; 2.15 − 31.7, 2.18 − 16.5; 2.2 − 10, 2.1 − 11.7; 0.5 − 7.31, 0.9 − 7.12; 1.7 − 4.2, 0.45 − 6.4; 0.95 − 3.2, and 2.65 − 4.9 in shoot and root, respectively. The mean concentrations of all PTEs were within safe limits except Cd and Cr. Pollution indices showed moderate-to-severe contamination, particularly caused by Cr. PCA results showed that Cd, Fe, and Pb originate from a common anthropogenic source. Non-carcinogenic health risks are caused by Co in adults and Cr and Pb in children, respectively. While carcinogenic risks were caused by Cd, Cr, and Ni in both adults and children. Commelina diffusa, C. bonplandianus, and Fegonia cretica showed bioaccumulation and translocation factors > 1 and helped in the phytoremediation of Cd and Cr from contaminated soil, respectively. Plants grown in urban areas have PTEs and have the efficiency to uptake.