Driving carbon reduction in buildings: modelling the adoption forces behind retrofitting practices

As urbanization accelerates and energy demand rises across developing economies, identifying what drives sustainable building practices is increasingly important. This study investigates the determinants of carbon retrofitting adoption (CRA) among built environment professionals in Lagos State, Nigeria. It focuses on how technical, financial, organizational and occupant-related factors influence retrofit decisions. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combined semi-structured interviews with a survey of 110 professionals. Quantitative data were analyzed through Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to assess six driver clusters: carbon energy efficiency (CED), environmental impact (EVD), building comfort (BCD), organizational capacity (OCD), financial incentives (FID) and regulatory compliance (RPD). Findings indicate that CED, FID, OCD and BCD significantly promote CRA, while EVD and RPD show no significant effect. The model demonstrates strong explanatory power, highlighting the dominance of economic, technical and organizational considerations in retrofit uptake. The study underscores the need to strengthen organizational capacity, expand financial incentives and prioritize occupant-focused design. It contributes rare empirical evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa and demonstrates the value of PLS-SEM in modeling complex sustainability decisions.