Between inclusion and restriction: how paternalism shapes policy discretion on women-only swimming in The Hague, the Netherlands

This article examines the experiences of local street-level bureaucrats as they navigate the politicisation of immigrant-related policies while addressing the practical needs of residents. We focus on group-specific sports and more specifically women-only swimming (sometimes referred to as ‘gender-segregated swimming’). Based on nine-months of fieldwork – including conversations with street-level bureaucrats at various levels within the municipality of The Hague, particularly in the district The Hague South-West – we analyse how discretion in policy implementation is shaped not only by commonly cited factors such as proximity, organisational culture and individual attitudes but also by paternalism. Our findings highlight how paternalism emerges as a crucial, yet overlooked, driver of discretion (or the absence thereof) to navigate the tension between responding to the citizens’ requests for women-only swimming and adhering to administrative directives against facilitating it. In this context, paternalism aligns with broader femonationalist discourses, portraying (migrant) women as victims of ‘their culture’ while reinforcing a dominant swimming culture centred on mixed-gender participation.