International aid for agroforestry development: accountability-driven pathways and sector-focused approaches in agroforestry for advancing green aid

Agroforestry – the integration of trees into crops or livestock systems – has gained increasing recognition as a strategic approach to enhancing food security, driving sustainable economic development, and supporting environmental conservation. Despite this growing importance, the dynamics of international aid for agroforestry remain underexplored. This study examines the status and evolving trends of agroforestry aid by analyzing data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s Creditor Reporting System spanning 1988–2019. The findings reveal three distinct aid pathways for agroforestry development, each shaped by diverse accountability and cooperation frameworks, with support distributed across five sectoral domains: agriculture, forestry, environment, energy, and rural development. Results demonstrate that the expansion of agroforestry aid is closely aligned with environmental management objectives, particularly climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation. Donor-recipient analysis highlights variations in accountability mechanisms and development priorities, reflecting the multidimensional nature of agroforestry within international cooperation. By identifying the thematic patterns and complexity of agroforestry aid, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of agroforestry aid and underscores its potential to enhance policy coherence, strengthen sustainable land use, and build global resilience.