Civic capital in unequal and uncertain times: individual, school, and contextual determinants

Understanding how young people develop civic capital is increasingly urgent in a period marked by democratic strain, social inequality and post-pandemic disruption. Using data from the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS), this study examines the multilevel contributions of family resources, school climate and temporal context to adolescents’ civic outcomes. Three-level mixed-effects models show that home literacy and cultural resources are among the strongest predictors of civic development, exceeding the influence of parental socioeconomic status alone. Open classroom climate is a key institutional factor that attenuates inequalities associated with family background. Results further reveal divergent civic pathways shaped by students’ backgrounds and their interactions with families and schools: immigrant youth display lower civic knowledge but higher civic efficacy and participation, while advantaged students show stronger knowledge-based outcomes. Temporal comparisons indicate increased civic participation alongside weaker civic knowledge and efficacy in the later cycle, pointing to the growing influence of post-pandemic conditions and digitally mediated participation. The findings shed light on the importance of dialogic, inclusive civic education policies that strengthen student voice and democratic classroom practices as well as the recognition in divergent pathways of developing civic capital.