Ecological assessment of soil quality affected by the Shahed-136 drone strike: Case study in Kirovograd region, Ukraine

Armed conflicts place acute pressures on ecosystems, accelerating soil degradation, contamination, and long-term ecological risks. This study evaluated soil quality in agricultural lands of the Kirovohrad region (Ukraine) after a Shahed-136 drone strike. The samples were collected from the crater bottom, lateral backsides, crater contour, and nearby control sites. A multi-method approach was used, combining X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and standardized biotesting with sensitive plants (Lepidium sativum, Raphanus sativus, Sorghum bicolor, Brassica napus). XRF revealed strong enrichment of toxic metals and rare elements in crater-bottom soils, with Pb exceeding 3%, Cd reaching 0.1% and detectable Tl, Bi, Pd, and Ir. Lateral soils contained elevated halogens (Cl, Br), which is consistent with explosive residues, while enrichment in S and Ag reflected combustion byproducts and metallic fragments. FTIR confirmed marked alterations of organic and mineral components, including sulfur- and metal-oxide phases. Biotesting showed species-specific responses. L. sativum and B. napus were highly sensitive, with strong suppression of root and shoot growth. Sorghum bicolor exhibited inhibition in highly contaminated soils but partial recovery at crater contours. R. sativus maintained growth under stress, suggesting that phytoremediation potential. The findings reveal heterogeneous contamination, with hotspots in crater cores, and provide essential baseline evidence for post-conflict soil monitoring and remediation.