Cultural influences on farmer attitudes and mitigation strategies towards primates in community forests of Bali and Lombok, Indonesia

Human-wildlife interactions over shared resources can negatively affect both human and wildlife populations, especially in human-modified habitats such as community forests. We assessed community farmers’ attitudes towards two resident primate species (long-tailed macaques and ebony langurs) in Bali, predominantly Hindu, and Lombok, predominantly Muslim. From May to July 2024, we employed a mixed-method approach, including semi-structured interviews with 67 community farmers. We explored how psychological factors (e.g. perceived benefits, importance of primate protection) interacted with lethal vs. non-lethal mitigation strategies via structural equation modelling and logistic regression. We found significant differences in perceptions and mitigation between islands and primate species. Beliefs and cultural practices shaped perceptions: Balinese respondents were more tolerant of crop-foraging primates than respondents on Lombok. Crop damage by macaques was more frequent and severe than that by langurs, leading to more negative attitudes and active deterrence measures towards macaques. The use of lethal measures was only reported in Lombok. Our results indicate that fostering human-primate coexistence in community forests would benefit from emphasizing the perceived benefits of primate presence. Tailored conservation initiatives that respect local beliefs and address community-specific challenges are essential for promoting tolerance towards primates and sustainable crop protection strategies.