δN formalism with gradient interactions

Abstract The standard δN formalism is a cornerstone technique for calculating curvature perturbations on super-Hubble scales. However, its validity relies heavily on the separate universe assumption, in which spatial gradients are neglected. This approximation is known to break down in scenarios that are critical for primordial black hole formation, such as transitions to an ultra-slow-roll phase, where gradient interactions induce a significant non-conservation of the comoving curvature perturbation. In this paper, we introduce a framework for incorporating gradient corrections into the δN formalism by adding an effective source term to the background Klein-Gordon equation. While preserving the nonlinear separate-universe dynamics at zeroth order, this approach consistently incorporates the leading gradient-sensitive effects and thereby improves the treatment of the nonlinear evolution of curvature perturbations up to the end of inflation, given initial conditions specified at horizon exit. By computing the equilateral non-Gaussianity parameter f eq NL , we demonstrate that our method captures some essential physical features missed by the standard δN approach, offering a simple pathway to determine the nonlinear evolution expected from cosmological perturbation theory.