Vegetation-geology interactions in TB Batu Besi tin mining landscape, East Belitung, Indonesia

Abstract Vegetation-geology interactions in mining landscapes represent critical factors determining ecosystem recovery and restoration success. This study characterized vegetation community structure and geological substrate relationships in the TB Batu Besi tin mining landscape, East Belitung, Indonesia. Vegetation surveys were conducted across four zones representing different geological conditions from August to October 2023, with rock samples analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. We documented 33 vascular plant species from 15 orders, with vegetation structure varying significantly across geological gradients: K3LH office area (21 species), Treatment area (13 species), Settling Pond 2 (10 species), and Settling Pond 3 (5 species). Myrtales dominated (7 species), reflecting specialized adaptations to acidic, metal-rich substrates. Only 6.1% of species ( Melastoma malabathricum and Commersonia batramia ) tolerated all geological conditions, while 66.7% exhibited substrate-specific distributions, demonstrating strong geology-vegetation coupling. Geochemical analysis revealed extreme substrate conditions with elevated iron (22,151–179,805 ppm), aluminium (29,134–62,234 ppm), copper (154–900 ppm), and sulfur (166–240 ppm) concentrations. The study demonstrates that geological substrate heterogeneity drives vegetation assembly patterns, requiring substrate-specific restoration approaches for effective ecosystem rehabilitation in tropical tin mining landscapes.