Thermodynamic effects and boil-off management in cryogenic propellant tanks: a systematic review

Abstract Boil-off losses in cryogenic propellant tanks remain a critical barrier to long-duration orbital missions, in-space refuelling, and planetary exploration. Despite advancements in tank insulation and material systems, thermally induced vaporization of cryogens particularly liquid hydrogen and methane continue to degrade storage efficiency, increase vented mass, and introduce mission risk. This review critically examines the thermodynamic underpinnings of boil-off phenomena in aerospace cryogenic tanks, emphasizing real-world design constraints such as structural heat leaks, multi-directional radiation fluxes, and tank pressurization under quiescent and dynamic conditions. Passive systems such as multilayer insulation, vapour- cooled shields, and advanced foam composites are compared against active zero boil-off strategies incorporating cryocoolers (Stirling, turbo-Brayton, and pulse tube) and integrated thermal control loops. National aeronautics and space administration and European space agency mission architectures are referenced to contextualize system-level trade-offs in boil-off management. Additionally, the review dissects leading modelling frameworks ranging from lumped-parameter thermal resistance models to CFD- based cryogenic mass loss prediction tools and outlines key metrics such as daily boil-off rate, total vented mass, and thermal budget sensitivity. The paper concludes by identifying research gaps in on-orbit validation, interface heat leak quantification, and insulation degradation over multi-cycle missions, advocating for a Multiphysics-informed, reliability-driven roadmap toward fully autonomous, boil-off-free cryogenic storage systems.