Citizens’ perceptions of the extreme drought in metropolitan Barcelona 2022-2025

The metropolitan area of Barcelona experienced an extreme drought from 2022 to 2025, inducing significant shifts in water management and in the public perception of water supply alternatives. Scarce and erratic rainfall, coupled with higher-than-normal temperatures in 2022 and 2023, sharply reduced runoff contributions to reservoirs, and the water stored began to decline rapidly. Several water-use restrictions were implemented by the government, following the drought planning phases of normality, alert, exceptionality, pre-emergency, and emergency established according to the water stored in reservoirs. This study analyses citizen self-reported responses to this extreme episode, including perceptions of restrictions and drought campaigns, through a survey of 700 households in the metropolitan area of Barcelona conducted in March 2025. Our survey indicates that climate change is perceived as the primary cause of the drought. However, citizens also attribute water scarcity to socio-natural factors, including infrastructure failures and the impact of tourism. Support for water-use restrictions implemented by the government is high but selective, strongly targeting discretionary uses, such as private pools and tourism, while showing less support for agricultural restrictions. Socio-demographic factors, particularly gender and age, showed significant associations with drought perception, self-reported awareness and conservation behaviour. These results underscore the need for nuanced, demographically targeted communication strategies that extend beyond crisis messaging to cultivate a sustained water conservation culture, even after drought emergencies have subsided.