List of Figures

Malapportionment, 1997–2015 41 Partisan gerrymandering, 2012–2022 44 Logic of the argument 48 Share of candidates supported by electoral alliances 62 Runoffs, electoral alliances, and anti-socialist bias: Country-specific estimates with 95% confidence intervals 65 Geographical distribution of the population (Gini index for selected countries) 69 Development of occupational diversification, 1858–1918 70 Malapportionment for selected countries 72 Correlation of party vote shares and malapportionment 74 Correlation of socialist vote share, socialist seats, and the number of voters in the German part of Austria (1907–1911) 79 Disproportionality by electoral system, 1875–1940 99 Containment and disproportionality 128 Number of countries using PR systems for parliamentary elections to the lower chamber, 1899–1939 144 Development of the effective electoral threshold in mean-sized districts 187 Pre-reform and post-reform districts in France 191 Party influence, electoral geography, and district magnitude 204 Bivariate density plot for pre-reform district vote shares and maximum vote shares in neighbouring districts 204 District maps of Luzern 233 Seat shares and electoral disproportionality, Switzerland, 1848–1917 236 District maps of Zürich 238 Effect of socialist electoral strength on support for PR conditional on disproportionality 250 Conservative vote and seat shares in elections to the Chamber of Representatives, Belgium, 1848–1919 256 Between-list and within-list variance of vote shares in districts in Belgium (1894, 1896, and 1898 elections) 262 Vote share difference of Conservatives and liberal-socialist alliance (existing or hypothetical), Belgium, 1896/1898 264 Conservatives’ vote margins and share of agricultural workforce, Belgium, 1894, 1896, and 1898 265 Predicted probabilities of cartel vote share on conservative support for PR 276 District magnitude and cartel lists under MR and PR in Belgium 281 Histogram of vote-seat distortions in Switzerland, 1900–1918 287