List of Tables

District design and electoral geography with plurality voting and single-member districts 11 Year of PR adoption (first election using PR systems) in first-wave democracies 20 Electoral system transitions, 1899–2020 21 Partisan districting to contain electoral threats 45 Pre-PR electoral systems in the first half of the 20th century (PR adoption year in brackets) 60 Runoff statistics by country 61 Runoffs, electoral alliances, and anti-socialist bias 64 Level of urbanization (percentage of total population living in cities of 5,000 or more inhabitants) 68 Number and regularity of reapportionment 75 Redistricting in Switzerland, number of cantons, 1848–1917 94 Parliamentary votes on redistricting in Switzerland, 1881 and 1890 94 Determinants of redistricting in Switzerland, 1848–1917 96 Effectiveness of redistricting in Switzerland, 1848–1917 97 Summary statistics 100 Effectiveness of redistricting in Switzerland, 1848–1917: Estimations without single-member district cantons 100 Theoretical expectations 120 Party positions on the adoption of PR 123 Incumbent parties that could rely on district design as a containment measure 127 The impact of containment on disproportionality 129 Results for disproportionality, containment, and party positions towards PR 132 Geographical coalitions for electoral reform 137 PR with incumbent driving or resisting reform (incumbent parties in parentheses) 138 Patterns of PR reform 141 Country sample disproportionality estimation 149 Summary statistics: Results for disproportionality, containment, and party positions towards PR 150 Distribution of PR district magnitude in 10 countries 183 Coding of party influence on electoral laws (district design) 197 District magnitude by country: Two subsequent reforms 199 Electoral geography and PR district magnitude 201 Electoral geography and PR district magnitude: District FE 203 Influence on design and disproportionality under PR 205 Reform proposals in Norway in 1919 211 Data sources 214 Coding of party influence variable 214 Summary statistics 216 Summary statistics by country 216 Robustness test: Negative binomial regressions excluding one country 219 Robustness test: Electoral geography and district magnitude without weights 221 Robustness test: Electoral geography and district magnitude: Mean vote share in neighbouring districts 222 Disproportionality, socialist electoral strength, and support for PR in Switzerland 249 Spatial concentration of party voters in Belgium 273 Penalized Logit models on PR votes 276 Cartel entry under MR (1894–1898) and PR (1906–1912) in Belgium 279 Summary statistics for analysis of Swiss roll-call data 287 Disproportionality, socialist electoral strength, and support for PR in Switzerland: Without socialist MPs 288