Epilogue

Abstract Historically, social citizenship was reserved for economically self-sufficient (male) citizens, excluding the poor and mobile. Industrialization increased internal migration; in 19th-century Germany and 20th-century America, a significant share of people moved across state lines. In contrast, fewer than 5 percent of EU citizens reside in another member state, and access to minimum social protection remains limited. In historical Germany and the US, policy expansion has rarely been driven by solidarity but by political struggle. Key policy entrepreneurs, such as Bismarck in Germany and Elizabeth Wickenden in the US, played critical roles in advancing rights. In the EU, however, political leadership has often supported restrictive policies. Internal mobility and social citizenship remain contested, influenced by local and national politics, institutional structures, and historical legacies. Ultimately, free movement and access to welfare depend not on solidarity, but on sustained political action and leadership.