The Military in Chinese History

Abstract The Chinese approach to that universal, war, has distinctive features. First, in traditional times, the authority of the Chinese emperor was considered unlimited. This belief meant that wars between nations and kingdoms were not seen as the norm. Such wars were fought, of course, between Sinitic and non-Sinitic peoples, such as those with the Mongols and other nomads, but they were not conceived of by Chinese thinkers in the same way as in the West. Internal wars were fought to win imperial power. The boundaries of China have never been fixed from dynasty to dynasty, or even today. Second, although rule over all of humanity might seem an overly ambitious goal, orthodox Chinese thought regarded kingly virtue as a genuine path to such power. The prototypical battles of Chinese historiography pivot not so much on military acumen as on the relative moral qualities of the contenders. This approach was not feasible in practice, yet it inescapably affected the ways in which force was used. Stress was placed on deception, intelligence, and operations in which brute force was not cardinal. Minimal means, wisely employed, it was believed, could secure maximal ends. Chinese warfare today is not that of traditional times but nevertheless bears its stamp. For purposes of internal security, the Chinese have traditionally isolated themselves from disruptive exogenous influences, such as globalization today. Finally, it must be remembered that China’s experience of warfare was not Europe’s. No Westphalian concepts grew there, nor has today’s China ever genuinely accepted the idea of international law.