Snake markings facilitate diverse anti-predator functions depending on habitat and viewing angle

Animals employ diverse coloration strategies to reduce predation risk, with patterns playing a key role in camouflage or for signaling unprofitability. Snakes exhibit various markings, but the specific antipredator functions of these patterns remain debated. We investigated how different snake patterns interact with habitat background and predator viewing conditions to influence camouflage. Using artificial snake models with 4 patterns (uniform, stripe, spot, zigzag) and 2 body colors (brown, gray), we assessed detectability across different natural habitats in southwest UK. We used visual modeling to simulate mammalian and avian predators and quantified background matching and edge disruption across varying visual distance and angles. Our results show that patterns affect camouflage depending on habitat and observer perspective. Spot and zigzag patterns increased edge disruption, particularly at greater distances, while striped patterns provided less effective concealment. However, zigzag patterns increased the contrast of snakes with conspicuous coloration in open habitats, suggesting potential aposematism. Viewing angle significantly influenced camouflage, with higher angles breaking edge disruption of zigzag and spot patterns, which also decreases as an observer approaches. Our findings highlight the multifunctionality of varied snake patterns, demonstrating their ability to facilitate both crypsis and aposematism depending on the ecological context. These results emphasize the importance of integrating habitat, body color, and predator perspective in understanding antipredator adaptations.