Advancing hydrogen safety: innovative approaches to risk assessment, material development, and sustainable applications in energy systems

Abstract The implementation of hydrogen (H2) in transportation, industrial applications, and energy systems underscores the importance of explosion risk management, particularly for H2–air and hybrid mixtures (including hydrocarbon and particulate/metal additives). This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of (i) theoretical and computational methodologies: 0D/1D screening, 1D flame acceleration/deflagration-to-detonation transition models, and 2D/3D computational fluid dynamics (Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes/large eddy simulation), with detailed versus simplified kinetics critically evaluating assumptions, accuracy constraints, and validation requirements; (ii) experimental techniques (shock tubes, detonation chambers, vented enclosures, obstructed channels) and diagnostic tools (pressure arrays, high-speed imaging, laser methodologies), encompassing scaling relationships for ignition sensitivity, flame velocity, and overpressure alongside the corresponding uncertainty/repeatability factors; and (iii) material compatibility, underscoring H2 embrittlement, permeation, fatigue, and mitigation strategies through coatings, liners, and qualification assessments. Codes and standards pertinent to design and operation (e.g. ISO 14687, ISO/TR 15916, NFPA 2, IEC 60079) are correlated with hazard controls, and application domains are delineated utilizing a technology readiness level/safety maturity perspective. Insights from significant incidents are synthesized through a cause–barrier–learning framework for prevention. Ultimately, a gap-structured roadmap prioritizes benchmark datasets, uncertainty–quantification–aware modeling, resilient sensing technologies, and auditable AI/digital twin instruments to enhance safety in H2 energy systems.