Diversification patterns of Haeterini butterflies (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae)

Abstract The understanding of evolutionary relationships among insect lineages has received special attention in recent years, leading to an increasing number of studies aiming to shed light on their diversity, biogeography, and species boundaries. Despite the growing use of integrative taxonomic approaches, the positioning and relationships of some groups remain controversial, mainly due to limited sampling and low-resolution genetic markers. This is the case of the Neotropical butterfly tribe Haeterini (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae), characterized by unique coloration patterns in which species display either transparent or dark wings. To date, species boundaries within Haeterini remain uncertain due to limited knowledge of their natural history and reliance on traditional morphology. Our study investigated species delimitation patterns and phylogenetic relationships within Haeterini using molecular and morphological data. Our sampling included most of the tribe’s distribution range, including previously unsampled regions. We applied quantitative methods to analyze wing coloration patterns and explored the tribe’s biogeographic history and diversification. Our findings contrast with previous studies and reveal weak support for some currently recognized species and subspecies, challenging Haeterini taxonomy. Additionally, the biogeographical analysis failed to identify a region of origin for the tribe but suggested dispersal-driven diversification with 8 vicariance events during the Miocene, consistent with major physiographic events such as the Pebas and Acre wetlands and the Andes orogeny. The tribe’s diversification likely occurred at a relatively low, constant rate, with few speciation events, aligning with the museum model of diversification in the Neotropics.