From traditional medicine to modern therapeutics: phytochemistry, pharmacology, and innovative sporopollenin-based drug delivery systems of Lycopodium clavatum L.

OBJECTIVES: Lycopodium clavatum L. has a long history of use in various traditional medicine systems. This review aims to systematically examine its ethnobotanical applications, phytochemical constituents, and pharmacological activities, with a particular focus on the innovative drug delivery potential of its sporopollenin microcapsules. METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted to gather and synthesize relevant information on the ethnobotany, chemistry, and pharmacology of L. clavatum. KEY FINDINGS: The key bioactive components include lycopodane-type alkaloids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolics. These compounds contribute to validated pharmacological effects such as anti-parasitic immunomodulation, induction of apoptosis in cancer cells, anticholinesterase activity, and hepatoprotection. The spores are a rich source of sporopollenin, which serves as a biocompatible platform for fabricating microcapsules with controlled release and enhanced bioavailability for therapeutic agents. Some clinical reports suggest efficacy for conditions like urolithiasis and hyperuricemia. CONCLUSIONS: The phytochemical profile of L. clavatum supports its traditional uses and highlights its potential in phytotherapy. Future research should focus on developing standardized extracts, conducting rigorous clinical trials, exploring synergistic formulations, and further exploiting sporopollenin-based nanocarriers to bridge ethnopharmacology with modern medicine.