The hydrodynamics of stratified ultrarelativistic outflows and the origin of GRB X-ray plateaus

ABSTRACT The origin of the X-ray plateau phase observed in a large fraction of gamma-ray burst afterglows remains debated. We present a novel analytic framework for the hydrodynamics of ultrarelativistic, radially stratified outflows interacting with an external medium. By explicitly accounting for a continuous distribution of Lorentz factors within the ejecta, we derive analytic expressions describing the evolution of a long-lived, mildly relativistic reverse shock and determine its crossing time. Then, we compute the resulting synchrotron emission from both the forward and reverse shocks. The forward shock naturally produces a shallow, long-lasting X-ray decay consistent with the observed properties of X-ray plateaus, including the Dainotti relation, without requiring prolonged central-engine activity or an additional high-energy emission component. We further show that reproducing the observed plateau durations requires a broad distribution of ejecta Lorentz factors, extending down to $\gamma _\text{min}\sim 70\!-\!100$, consistent with the ultraelativistic outflow that powers the prompt $\gamma$-ray emission. The reverse shock generates a long-lived millimetre emission component that outshines the forward shock emission at these wavelengths. Both the plateau and reverse shock emission terminate smoothly once the slowest ejecta are processed, marking a transition to the standard Blandford–McKee self-similar evolution. Such stratified outflows are expected on physical grounds, as the ultrarelativistic ejecta responsible for the prompt $\gamma$-ray emission are unlikely to be launched with a single Lorentz factor. This model provides a unified picture in which the same outflow powers the prompt emission, the X-ray plateau, and the subsequent afterglow evolution.