Transformation of trauma and orthopaedics across the six industrial revolutions: from mechanization to artificial intelligence applications in enhancing patient care

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Technological innovation has played a pivotal role in shaping trauma and orthopaedic surgery. This narrative review examines the evolution of orthopaedic practice across six industrial revolutions, from early mechanization to contemporary artificial intelligence (AI)-driven healthcare. METHODS: A structured literature search of major databases and historical sources was performed through December 2025. RESULTS: Industry 1.0 introduced standardized surgical instrumentation and early prosthetics, while Industry 2.0 enabled radiographic imaging, aseptic techniques, and internal fixation. Industry 3.0 facilitated total joint arthroplasty, advanced cross-sectional imaging, and minimally invasive surgery. Industry 4.0 has integrated AI, robotics, and three-dimensional printing into clinical practice. Emerging paradigms of Industry 5.0 emphasize human-AI collaboration, personalized medicine, and regenerative technologies, whereas Industry 6.0 envisions autonomous surgical systems and intelligent implants. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding this technological progression provides insight into the future trajectory of precision orthopaedics and highlights the importance of interdisciplinary innovation in improving patient outcomes.