Lunar dust: Formation, microphysics, and transport

Lunar dust—the submillimeter fraction of the regolith—controls the optical, thermophysical, electrical, mechanical, and environmental behavior of the Moon's surface. These properties set the performance envelopes of remote-sensing retrievals, regolith geotechnics, volatile cycles, and exploration systems, while also posing operational and biomedical risks. We synthesize Apollo sample analyses and observations (Surveyor, Lunokhod, Apollo) with contemporary datasets from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Diviner Lunar Radiometer, the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE)/Lunar Dust Experiment on LADEE exospheric dust measurements, and Chang’e-4 Lunar Penetrating Radar. We also incorporate 2024–2025 results: Chandrayaan-3 Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment thermophysics at the Vikram lander's site, Stereo Cameras for Lunar Plume-Surface Studies (SCALPSS) plume-surface diagnostics from Intuitive Machines Mission 1, and Negative Ions at the Lunar Surface detections of a dayside near-surface H − population on Chang’e-6. The review links (1) production and modification processes to (2) grain-scale physical/chemical/electrical/optical/mechanical properties, then to (3) mobilization pathways (meteoroid ejecta, electrostatic hopping, and rocket-plume entrainment), and finally to (4) region-specific design ranges across maria, highlands, pyroclastic units, magnetic swirls, and permanently shadowed regions (PSRs). We quantify temperature-illumination dependence across day/night and PSR-equator regimes through a two-channel k ( T , ρ ) model and charge-relaxation scaling. We provide closed-form expressions for adhesion-aware lift thresholds and for near-surface (0–3 m) dust transport at apex/hover heights as functions of sheath structure. The result is a design-ready set of relations, figures, and tables that propagate microphysics and composition into engineering parameters for upcoming landed and rover operations.