Hybrid-flexible virtual reality as a flexible participation model for inclusive learning in digitally constrained vocational education

Purpose This study aims to examine how hybrid-flexible virtual reality (HyFlex-VR) functions as an inclusive open and distance learning approach that widens participation and sustains meaningful learning in vocational education with a limited digital infrastructure. It investigates how learning engagement and satisfaction mediate students' perceptions of inclusiveness of learning access and equitable participation. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a mixed-methods approach with a sequential explanatory design. In the initial stage, a quantitative survey was conducted with 187 respondents and analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling to examine the structural relationships among HyFlex-VR implementation, engagement, satisfaction and inclusivity. Qualitative interviews with teachers and students were conducted to deepen the understanding of learning experiences, participation challenges and perceptions of inclusivity in HyFlex-VR learning environments. Findings The results indicate that HyFlex-VR effectively supports inclusive learning within flexible participation conditions typical of open and distance learning in vocational education with digital limitations. HyFlex-VR positively influenced engagement and satisfaction, with satisfaction serving as a key mechanism linking HyFlex-VR to perceived learning inclusivity, while engagement contributed indirectly through satisfaction. Digital infrastructure significantly affects engagement, and digital competence directly enhances inclusivity. Qualitative findings reinforce these results, emphasizing the importance of flexible learning design and well-managed pedagogical experiences across multiple participation modes for diverse learners to achieve learning outcomes. Originality/value This study contributes to open and distance education by showing how multimodal HyFlex-VR expands access and flexible participation in digitally constrained vocational contexts, advancing understanding of psychological mechanisms linking flexible learning design with perceived inclusivity.