A critical review of research on synchronous instructor presence in online learning: Elusive evidence and mixed results

Purpose While research has shown a positive correlation between instructor presence and student learning outcomes, the role of instructor synchronous activities in online courses remains underexplored. This review addresses that gap by critically evaluating the literature on synchronous instructor presence and its impact on student learning. Design/methodology/approach Originally intended as a meta-analysis, this review followed a systematic search process aligned with the US Department of Education (2020) and the PRISMA guidelines (Page et al., 2021). Due to a limited number of studies on synchronous instructor presence, inconsistent definitions, diverse study designs and variable outcome measures, meta-analysis was deemed unfeasible. The review proceeded as a critical synthesis of the existing research. Findings From the initial pool of 7,591 studies published between 2010 and 2022, only ten met the criteria for inclusion in the critical review: seven examined course grades and three examined grade distributions. None satisfied the stricter criteria for meta-analysis. Most studies lacked a standardized definition, valid effect size reporting and consistent methodological rigor. Originality/value This review highlights a significant gap in the current evidence and calls for more robust, clearly defined and methodologically sound research on synchronous instructor presence. It underscores the need for improved reporting practices to enable future meta-analyses and evidence-informed practice in online education.