Between Structural Dualism and Pedagogical Duality: Paradoxes of Language Functions in International Programmes: A Case of Poland

Abstract This chapter examines the paradoxes of language functions in bilingual education through a comparative analysis of national and international programs, focusing on Poland’s integration of the International Baccalaureate (IB) into its state system. The study introduces a novel theoretical lens within the field of comparative education by applying the categories of dualism—rigid language separation—and duality—productive interdependence—to interrogate how language policies operate across diverse educational settings. It identifies key tensions between structured instruction and learner autonomy, national identity and global mobility, and fragmented versus integrated linguistic identities. Using a conceptual synthesis of international case studies and policy documents, this chapter demonstrates how national models often enforce fixed language hierarchies while IB frameworks promote translanguaging and fluidity. Yet, both models produce contradictions that impact students’ cognitive development and identity formation. By reconceptualizing these paradoxes as inherent rather than dysfunctional features of bilingual education, the study offers an original comparative framework for analyzing how systems negotiate language’s dual role as both a tool of power and a medium of expression. This perspective contributes practical insights for policymakers balancing cultural preservation with global competitiveness. It argues that successful international bilingual programs must engage these tensions reflexively rather than attempt to eliminate them.