The PCOF Model: A Cognitive Framework for Designing Physical Switch Interactions in Smart Vehicle Cockpits

As cockpits grow smarter and physical controls increasingly give way to touchscreens, the role of physical switches calls for systematic re-examination. Concerned with the attentional diversion and operational uncertainty often associated with all-touch interfaces, this study develops and empirically validates a user-centered framework for physical switch design in smart cockpits. Grounded in interdisciplinary theory and design practice, the work introduces a four-dimensional cognitive model — Perception, Cognition, Operation, and Feedback (PCOF). The model moves beyond static form– function descriptions to capture real-time interaction dynamics, offering an actionable tool for design evaluation and innovation. From this foundation, five design principles are derived: Safety Priority, Frequency Layering, Ergonomic Optimization, Multimodal Fusion, and Emotional Expression. A zoned, context-aware physical switch layout is also proposed. A case study of the Zunjie S800, a premium Chinese smart electric vehicle, demonstrates the framework's effectiveness in enhancing driving safety, operational efficiency, and emotional brand connection. The study further suggests that future physical switch design should integrate smart materials, adaptive interaction, and sustainable approaches — supporting a broader shift from "modality replacement" to "modality fusion." In sum, this work offers both theoretical grounding and practical guidance for tangible interaction in smart cockpits, outlining a design philosophy and implementation path for human–vehicle interaction in the software-defined vehicle era.