Data Glove and Controller Utilized in a Ball-Catching Task With Virtual Reality Differentially Modulate Corticospinal Excitability During Combined Action Observation and Motor Imagery

Virtual reality (VR) enhances the vividness of motor imagery (MI) when combined with action observation (AO). While prior studies suggest differences in self-awareness and motor practice when using a Controller versus a data Glove (Glove) to manipulate an avatar hand, it remains unclear whether corticospinal excitability (CSE) varies by manipulation type. Using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), we examined CSE before and after short-term performance change of a VR ball-catching task with a Controller or Glove. Twenty healthy adults in short-term performance change with both devices on separate days. Participants unimanually controlled an avatar hand in VR to catch a ball. We assessed changes in MI vividness, self-awareness, motor performance, and surface electromyography (EMG) with practice. Single-pulse TMS was delivered before and after practice over the contralateral motor cortex to evaluate CSE in task-related muscles at rest and during Action Observation during Motor Imagery (AOMI). MI vividness increased with practice for both devices, with no between-device differences in self-awareness. Agonist EMG decreased only with Glove practice, while CSE (motor-evoked potential amplitude) increased after Glove practice but not after Controller practice. Correlation analyses showed significant associations between EMG and motor-evoked potentials (MEP), and between ownership and MEP, after practice. These findings indicate that short-term performance change modulates CSE in a device-dependent, muscle-specific manner in a VR ball-catching task, with CSE changes linked to the sense of body ownership in VR.